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mathematical terms

  • 1 Maxwell, James Clerk

    [br]
    b. 13 June 1831 Edinburgh, Scotland
    d. 5 November 1879 Cambridge, England
    [br]
    Scottish physicist who formulated the unified theory of electromagnetism, the kinetic theory of gases and a theory of colour.
    [br]
    Maxwell attended school at the Edinburgh Academy and at the age of 16 went on to study at Edinburgh University. In 1850 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated four years later as Second Wrangler with the award of the Smith's Prize. Two years later he was appointed Professor at Marischal College, Aberdeen, where he married the Principal's daughter. In 1860 he moved to King's College London, but on the death of his father five years later, Maxwell returned to the family home in Scotland, where he continued his researches as far as the life of a gentleman farmer allowed. This rural existence was interrupted in 1874 when he was persuaded to accept the chair of Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics at Cambridge. Unfortunately, in 1879 he contracted the cancer that brought his brilliant career to an untimely end. While at Cambridge, Maxwell founded the Cavendish Laboratory for research in physics. A succession of distinguished physicists headed the laboratory, making it one of the world's great centres for notable discoveries in physics.
    During the mid-1850s, Maxwell worked towards a theory to explain electrical and magnetic phenomena in mathematical terms, culminating in 1864 with the formulation of the fundamental equations of electromagnetism (Maxwell's equations). These equations also described the propagation of light, for he had shown that light consists of transverse electromagnetic waves in a hypothetical medium, the "ether". This great synthesis of theories uniting a wide range of phenomena is worthy to set beside those of Sir Isaac Newton and Einstein. Like all such syntheses, it led on to further discoveries. Maxwell himself had suggested that light represented only a small part of the spectrum of electromagnetic waves, and in 1888 Hertz confirmed the discovery of another small part of the spectrum, radio waves, with momentous implications for the development of telecommunication technology. Maxwell contributed to the kinetic theory of gases, which by then were viewed as consisting of a mass of randomly moving molecules colliding with each other and with the walls of the containing vessel. From 1869 Maxwell applied statistical methods to describe the molecular motion in mathematical terms. This led to a greater understanding of the behaviour of gases, with important consequences for the chemical industry.
    Of more direct technological application was Maxwell's work on colour vision, begun in 1849, showing that all colours could be derived from the three primary colours, red, yellow and blue. This enabled him in 1861 to produce the first colour photograph, of a tartan. Maxwell's discoveries about colour vision were quickly taken up and led to the development of colour printing and photography.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    Most of his technical papers are reprinted in The Scientific Papers of J.Clerk Maxwell, 1890, ed. W.D.Niven, Cambridge, 2 vols; reprinted 1952, New York.
    Maxwell published several books, including Theory of Heat, 1870, London (1894, 11th edn, with notes by Lord Rayleigh) and Theory of Electricity and Magnetism, 1873, Oxford (1891, ed. J.J.Thomson, 3rd edn).
    Further Reading
    L.Campbell and W.Garnett, 1882, The Life of James Clerk Maxwell, London (the standard biography).
    J.J.Thomson (ed.), 1931, James Clerk Maxwell 1831–1931, Cambridge. J.G.Crowther, 1932, British Scientists of the Nineteenth Century, London.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Maxwell, James Clerk

  • 2 язык математики

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > язык математики

  • 3 язык

    language, tongue
    * * *
    язы́к м.
    language
    формализова́ть язы́к вчт. — formalize a language
    алгебраи́ческий язы́к — algebraic language
    алгоритми́ческий язы́к — algorithmic language
    входно́й язы́к — input [source] language
    выходно́й язы́к — object [target] language
    информацио́нно-поиско́вый язы́к [ИПЯ] — information retrieval language
    информацио́нный язы́к — information language
    исхо́дный язы́к — source language
    ко́довый язы́к — code language
    язы́к матема́тики — mathematical language, mathematical terms
    маши́нно-незави́симый язы́к — computer-independent language
    маши́нно-ориенти́рованный язы́к — computer-oriented language
    маши́нный язы́к — machine language, machine code
    язы́к оригина́ла — source language
    язы́к перево́да — target language
    язы́к пла́мени — body of flame, tail
    пробле́мно-ориенти́рованный язы́к — problem-oriented language
    язы́к программи́рования — program(ming) language
    язы́к тепла́ метеор. — warmth tongue
    язы́к хо́лода метеор. — cold tongue
    язы́к центробе́жного компре́ссора ( вентилятора) — cut-off sheet
    этало́нный язы́к — reference language

    Русско-английский политехнический словарь > язык

  • 4 выразить (что-л.) математически

    Makarov: express in mathematical terms

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > выразить (что-л.) математически

  • 5 выразить (что-л.) на языке математики

    Makarov: express in mathematical terms

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > выразить (что-л.) на языке математики

  • 6 математически на языке математики

    General subject: to( smth.) in mathematical terms (что-л.)

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > математически на языке математики

  • 7 выразить математически

    Makarov: (что-л.) express in mathematical terms

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > выразить математически

  • 8 выразить на языке математики

    Makarov: (что-л.) express in mathematical terms

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > выразить на языке математики

  • 9 καταμαθηματικεύω

    A reduce to mathematical terms, in [voice] Med.,

    - εύσατο τὴν φύσιν Phlp.

    in de An.481.34.

    Greek-English dictionary (Αγγλικά Ελληνικά-λεξικό) > καταμαθηματικεύω

  • 10 systems method

    Gen Mgt
    a widely used group of methodologies which explore the nature of complex business situations by mapping activities in a model. The systems method can be applied to systems that are either hard systems, where precise objectives are expressed in mathematical terms, or soft systems, where a human factor is involved and situations often do not involve such precise objectives. A variety of systems approaches are available including operational research, systems analysis, and systems dynamics.

    The ultimate business dictionary > systems method

  • 11 Matematički pojmovi i nazivi

    • Mathematical notions and terms

    Hrvatski-Engleski rječnik > Matematički pojmovi i nazivi

  • 12 rechnerisch

    I Adj. mathematical, arithmetical; rechnerische Lösung mathematical solution; ein rechnerisches Beispiel geben give an example with some figures
    II Adv. mathematically, arithmetically; (durch Berechnung) by way of calculation; rechnerisch richtig mathematically correct; rein rechnerisch gesehen purely in terms of figures; rechnerisch ist es zwar in Ordnung, aber... it’s OK as far as the figures go ( oder the numbers look good) but...
    * * *
    rẹch|ne|risch
    1. adj
    arithmetical; (POL ) Mehrheit numerical

    ein rechnerisches Beispiel — an example with some figures

    2. adv
    1)

    (= kalkulatorisch) rechnerisch falsch sein — to be wrongly calculated

    rein rechnerisch — just on the basis of the figures

    ich bin rein rechnerisch überzeugt, aber... — I'm convinced as far as the figures go but...

    2) (= durch Rechnen) by or through calculation
    * * *
    rech·ne·risch
    I. adj arithmetic[al]
    \rechnerischer Gewinn paper profit
    II. adv
    1. (kalkulatorisch) arithmetically
    \rechnerisch richtig arithmetically correct
    2. (durch Rechnen) by calculation
    rein \rechnerisch purely arithmetically, as far as the figures go
    * * *
    1.
    Adjektiv arithmetical; < value> in figures
    2.
    adverbial < determine> by calculation, mathematically
    * * *
    A. adj mathematical, arithmetical;
    rechnerische Lösung mathematical solution;
    ein rechnerisches Beispiel geben give an example with some figures
    B. adv mathematically, arithmetically; (durch Berechnung) by way of calculation;
    rechnerisch richtig mathematically correct;
    rein rechnerisch gesehen purely in terms of figures;
    rechnerisch ist es zwar in Ordnung, aber… it’s OK as far as the figures go ( oder the numbers look good) but …
    * * *
    1.
    Adjektiv arithmetical; < value> in figures
    2.
    adverbial < determine> by calculation, mathematically
    * * *
    adj.
    arithmetical n.
    mathematical n. adv.
    arithmetically n.
    by way of calculation n.
    mathematically n.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > rechnerisch

  • 13 importancia

    f.
    importance.
    dar importancia a algo to attach importance to something
    darse importancia to give oneself airs
    de importancia important, of importance
    sin importancia unimportant
    quitar importancia a algo to play something down
    * * *
    1 importance
    \
    dar importancia a algo to take something seriously
    darse importancia to give oneself airs
    de importancia (gen) important 2 (herida, lesión) serious
    no tiene importancia it's nothing, it doesn't matter, it's not important
    quitar importancia a algo, restar importancia a algo to play something down
    sin importancia unimportant
    tener importancia to be important
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *

    ¿y eso qué importancia tiene? — and how is that important o significant?, and what significance does that have?

    no te preocupes, no tiene importancia — don't worry, it's not important

    • carecer de importancia — to be unimportant

    • de cierta importancia — [empresa, asunto] of some importance, important; [herida] serious

    • conceder o dar mucha importancia a algo — to attach great importance to sth

    no quiero darle más importancia de la que tiene, pero... — I don't want to make an issue of this but...

    • darse importancia — to give o.s. airs

    • quitar o restar importancia a algo — to make light of sth, play down the importance of sth

    • sin importancia — [herida, comentario] minor

    * * *
    femenino importance

    detalles sin importancia — minor o insignificant details

    concederle or darle importancia a algo — to attach importance to something

    quitarle or restarle importancia a algo — to play down the importance of something

    ¿y eso qué importancia tiene? — so what?

    darse importancia — to give oneself airs

    * * *
    = importance, merit, notability, pre-eminence [preeminence], prominence, significance, standing, stature, value, distinction, visibility, centrality, meaningfulness, worthwhileness, profile, premium, import, fuse, consequence.
    Ex. This format is becoming common in new thesauri, partly because the recognition of the importance of viewing both relationships and subject terms in one tool.
    Ex. Much will be said later about the merits and drawbacks of the various types of index and approaches to indexing.
    Ex. Its notability is seen to lie in the fact that it has significantly broken the stranglehold upon postgraduate studentships in the gift of the Science and Engineering Research Council.
    Ex. Despite its pre-eminence, or possibly because of it, DC has its critics.
    Ex. Weights are a quantitative measure of the prominence of various index terms in the description of a subject and may form the basis of an alternative search logic.
    Ex. Whatever viewpoint is taken, it is difficult to dispute the significance of AACR1.
    Ex. Their sheer institutional standing and regard have had a bearing upon the creation of a situation which is a good deal better than it might otherwise have been.
    Ex. Merely having the materials available will not provide the desired boost to the library's stature unless the collection is exceptional.
    Ex. This stop list is input to the computer before indexing can commence, and is a list of the words which appear in text which have no value as access words in an index.
    Ex. Mystery and detective stories, love and romance fiction, adventure and western stories, recent novels widely publicized but of little literary distinction, popularizations of current affairs characterized by sensationalism and easy dogmatism rather than by dispassionate and qualified analysis -- these and similar books are widely circulated by the public library.
    Ex. The new director considers that there is need for recruitment of librarians from all backgrounds into the profession and that librarianship needs higher visibility within society.
    Ex. Gilman advocated the academic library's centrality to research.
    Ex. The author challenges the meaningfulness of precision and recall values as a measure of performance of a retrieval system.
    Ex. But it always assumes the importance, the worthwhileness, of human experience even when -- as in tragedy -- it finds much in that experience evil.
    Ex. There is also a further dilemma concerning formats such as film and audio which have tended to receive a lower profile in the library world (too awkward, too cluttered with copyright restrictions, too technically instable).
    Ex. To presuppose that clients will continue to travel to defined locations earmarked as libraries in search of information is to deny the premium on time prevalent in today's culture.
    Ex. A new set of conventions has had to be developed, using mathematical symbols mainly, which have international import.
    Ex. Accessibility is the most important factor in determining the level of fuse of an information source.
    Ex. I am looking for guidance on a potential digitization project of some consequence.
    ----
    * adquirir importancia = assume + importance, attain + importance, come up, take on + added weight, gain + significance, move up + the agenda, gain + importance, gain in + importance.
    * adquirir importancia histórica = make + history, go down in + history.
    * asunto de importancia = matter of weight, matter of consequence.
    * asunto sin importancia = matter of no consequence.
    * aumentar de importancia = grow in + importance, grow in + significance.
    * clasificar en orden de importancia = rank + in order of importance.
    * cobrar importancia = assume + importance, take on + added weight, move up + the agenda, gain + importance, be on the agenda.
    * conceder importancia = accord + significance level, attach + importance, place + importance.
    * conceder mucha importancia a = lay + great store on.
    * concienciar a Alguien de la importancia de la información = raise + information awareness.
    * consciente de la importancia de la información = information conscious.
    * crecer en importancia = grow from + strength to strength, increase in + importance.
    * cuestión de importancia = matter of consequence.
    * cuestión sin importancia = matter of no consequence.
    * dar a Algo más importancia de la que tiene = oversell.
    * dar bastante importancia a = place + great store on.
    * dar importancia = attach + importance, give + prominence, stress, give + pre-eminence, give + relevance, place + importance, give + importance.
    * dar importancia a = give + weight to, place + emphasis on, attach + weight to, create + a high profile for, give + a high profile, place + weight on.
    * dar importancia a Algo = put + Algo + on the agenda, be on the agenda.
    * dar mayor importancia a = give + pride of place to.
    * dar mucha importancia = put + a premium on.
    * de capital importancia = momentous, of cardinal importance.
    * de crucial importancia = crucially important.
    * de especial importancia = of particular note.
    * de fundamental importancia = of prime importance, critically important.
    * de importancia = of note, of consequence.
    * de importancia creciente = of growing importance.
    * de importancia crucial = crucially important.
    * de importancia fundamental = critically important.
    * de importancia secundaria = incidental.
    * de mayor o menor importancia = great and small.
    * de menor importancia = fringe subject, of fringe interest.
    * de menor importancia para = on the fringe of.
    * de poca importancia = menial, small-time.
    * de primordial importancia = of prime importance, of paramount importance.
    * de segunda importancia = marginal, back burner, on the back burner, second in importance.
    * de segunda importancia en relación con = secondary to.
    * destacar la importa = underscore + importance.
    * destacar la importancia de = stress + the importance of, emphasise + the importance of, highlight + the importance of.
    * de suma importancia = of the utmost importance, of utmost importance.
    * de suprema importancia = of the highest significance.
    * de tercera importancia = tertiary.
    * de vital importancia = vitally important.
    * disminuir la importancia de = lessen + the importance of.
    * donde el tiempo es de suma importancia = time-critical.
    * en orden de importancia = in rank order, in order.
    * falta de importancia = worthlessness.
    * ganar cada vez más importancia = go from + strength to strength, grow from + strength to strength.
    * ganar importancia = grow in + importance, grow in + strength, gain + prominence, grow in + significance, gain + significance, gain in + importance.
    * gente de poca importancia = small fry, the.
    * importancia cada vez mayor = growing importance, growing significance.
    * importancia histórica = historical significance.
    * importancia primordial = key importance.
    * importancia + radicar = the importance of + Nombre + lie.
    * importancia + residir = the importance of + Nombre + lie.
    * importancia + yacer = the importance of + Nombre + lie.
    * minimizar la importancia = minimise + importance.
    * nada de importancia = nothing in particular.
    * no darle demasiada importancia a Algo = think + little of.
    * no darle demasiada importancia a + Infinitivo = think + nothing of + Gerundio.
    * no darle importancia a = think + very little about/of.
    * no percatarse de la importancia de Algo = have + no feeling for.
    * no poder dejar de recalcar la importancia de Algo = cannot + give + too much emphasis + to the importance of, the importance of + Nombre + cannot be stressed too strongly.
    * no se puede dejar de recalcar la importancia de Algo = the importance of + Nombre + cannot be overemphasised, the importance of + Nombre + cannot be overstressed, the importance of + Nombre + cannot be overstated.
    * no tener importancia = be of no importance, make + no difference, be of no consequence.
    * no tener la menor importancia = be of no particular concern.
    * ordenar por orden de importancia = rank + in order.
    * orden decreciente de importancia = decreasing order of importance.
    * orden de importancia = significance order of terms, pecking order, significance order.
    * pérdida de importancia = demise, swing away from.
    * poca importancia = unimportance, low profile.
    * poner de relieve la importancia = underscore + importance.
    * prestar importancia a = place + weight on.
    * que le presta gran importancia a la cultura = culture-conscious.
    * quitar importancia = de-emphasise [de-emphasize, -USA], understate, trivialise [trivialize, -USA], minimise + importance, downplay, gloss over, negate, soft-pedal.
    * quitar importancia a un problema = trivialise + trouble.
    * quitarle importancia a las cosas = make + light of things.
    * realzar la importancia = heighten + importance.
    * recalcar la importancia de = stress + the importance of.
    * recibir importancia = enjoy + prominence.
    * remarcar la importancia = underline + importance.
    * resaltar la importancia = underscore + importance.
    * resaltar la importancia de = stress + the importance of, emphasise + the importance of, highlight + the importance of.
    * restar importancia = minimise + importance, downplay, gloss over, negate, soft-pedal.
    * restarle importancia a las cosas = make + light of things.
    * ser de importancia primordial = be of key importance.
    * ser de importancia vital = lie at + the heart of.
    * sin darle importancia = airily.
    * sin importancia = negligible, unimportant, trifling, immaterial, of no consequence.
    * subrayar la importancia = underline + importance, underscore + importance.
    * tema de secundaria importancia = footnote.
    * tener gran importancia = be of high significance.
    * tener importancia = carry + weight, have + high profile, be of consequence.
    * tener la misma importancia = carry + equal weight.
    * * *
    femenino importance

    detalles sin importancia — minor o insignificant details

    concederle or darle importancia a algo — to attach importance to something

    quitarle or restarle importancia a algo — to play down the importance of something

    ¿y eso qué importancia tiene? — so what?

    darse importancia — to give oneself airs

    * * *
    = importance, merit, notability, pre-eminence [preeminence], prominence, significance, standing, stature, value, distinction, visibility, centrality, meaningfulness, worthwhileness, profile, premium, import, fuse, consequence.

    Ex: This format is becoming common in new thesauri, partly because the recognition of the importance of viewing both relationships and subject terms in one tool.

    Ex: Much will be said later about the merits and drawbacks of the various types of index and approaches to indexing.
    Ex: Its notability is seen to lie in the fact that it has significantly broken the stranglehold upon postgraduate studentships in the gift of the Science and Engineering Research Council.
    Ex: Despite its pre-eminence, or possibly because of it, DC has its critics.
    Ex: Weights are a quantitative measure of the prominence of various index terms in the description of a subject and may form the basis of an alternative search logic.
    Ex: Whatever viewpoint is taken, it is difficult to dispute the significance of AACR1.
    Ex: Their sheer institutional standing and regard have had a bearing upon the creation of a situation which is a good deal better than it might otherwise have been.
    Ex: Merely having the materials available will not provide the desired boost to the library's stature unless the collection is exceptional.
    Ex: This stop list is input to the computer before indexing can commence, and is a list of the words which appear in text which have no value as access words in an index.
    Ex: Mystery and detective stories, love and romance fiction, adventure and western stories, recent novels widely publicized but of little literary distinction, popularizations of current affairs characterized by sensationalism and easy dogmatism rather than by dispassionate and qualified analysis -- these and similar books are widely circulated by the public library.
    Ex: The new director considers that there is need for recruitment of librarians from all backgrounds into the profession and that librarianship needs higher visibility within society.
    Ex: Gilman advocated the academic library's centrality to research.
    Ex: The author challenges the meaningfulness of precision and recall values as a measure of performance of a retrieval system.
    Ex: But it always assumes the importance, the worthwhileness, of human experience even when -- as in tragedy -- it finds much in that experience evil.
    Ex: There is also a further dilemma concerning formats such as film and audio which have tended to receive a lower profile in the library world (too awkward, too cluttered with copyright restrictions, too technically instable).
    Ex: To presuppose that clients will continue to travel to defined locations earmarked as libraries in search of information is to deny the premium on time prevalent in today's culture.
    Ex: A new set of conventions has had to be developed, using mathematical symbols mainly, which have international import.
    Ex: Accessibility is the most important factor in determining the level of fuse of an information source.
    Ex: I am looking for guidance on a potential digitization project of some consequence.
    * adquirir importancia = assume + importance, attain + importance, come up, take on + added weight, gain + significance, move up + the agenda, gain + importance, gain in + importance.
    * adquirir importancia histórica = make + history, go down in + history.
    * asunto de importancia = matter of weight, matter of consequence.
    * asunto sin importancia = matter of no consequence.
    * aumentar de importancia = grow in + importance, grow in + significance.
    * clasificar en orden de importancia = rank + in order of importance.
    * cobrar importancia = assume + importance, take on + added weight, move up + the agenda, gain + importance, be on the agenda.
    * conceder importancia = accord + significance level, attach + importance, place + importance.
    * conceder mucha importancia a = lay + great store on.
    * concienciar a Alguien de la importancia de la información = raise + information awareness.
    * consciente de la importancia de la información = information conscious.
    * crecer en importancia = grow from + strength to strength, increase in + importance.
    * cuestión de importancia = matter of consequence.
    * cuestión sin importancia = matter of no consequence.
    * dar a Algo más importancia de la que tiene = oversell.
    * dar bastante importancia a = place + great store on.
    * dar importancia = attach + importance, give + prominence, stress, give + pre-eminence, give + relevance, place + importance, give + importance.
    * dar importancia a = give + weight to, place + emphasis on, attach + weight to, create + a high profile for, give + a high profile, place + weight on.
    * dar importancia a Algo = put + Algo + on the agenda, be on the agenda.
    * dar mayor importancia a = give + pride of place to.
    * dar mucha importancia = put + a premium on.
    * de capital importancia = momentous, of cardinal importance.
    * de crucial importancia = crucially important.
    * de especial importancia = of particular note.
    * de fundamental importancia = of prime importance, critically important.
    * de importancia = of note, of consequence.
    * de importancia creciente = of growing importance.
    * de importancia crucial = crucially important.
    * de importancia fundamental = critically important.
    * de importancia secundaria = incidental.
    * de mayor o menor importancia = great and small.
    * de menor importancia = fringe subject, of fringe interest.
    * de menor importancia para = on the fringe of.
    * de poca importancia = menial, small-time.
    * de primordial importancia = of prime importance, of paramount importance.
    * de segunda importancia = marginal, back burner, on the back burner, second in importance.
    * de segunda importancia en relación con = secondary to.
    * destacar la importa = underscore + importance.
    * destacar la importancia de = stress + the importance of, emphasise + the importance of, highlight + the importance of.
    * de suma importancia = of the utmost importance, of utmost importance.
    * de suprema importancia = of the highest significance.
    * de tercera importancia = tertiary.
    * de vital importancia = vitally important.
    * disminuir la importancia de = lessen + the importance of.
    * donde el tiempo es de suma importancia = time-critical.
    * en orden de importancia = in rank order, in order.
    * falta de importancia = worthlessness.
    * ganar cada vez más importancia = go from + strength to strength, grow from + strength to strength.
    * ganar importancia = grow in + importance, grow in + strength, gain + prominence, grow in + significance, gain + significance, gain in + importance.
    * gente de poca importancia = small fry, the.
    * importancia cada vez mayor = growing importance, growing significance.
    * importancia histórica = historical significance.
    * importancia primordial = key importance.
    * importancia + radicar = the importance of + Nombre + lie.
    * importancia + residir = the importance of + Nombre + lie.
    * importancia + yacer = the importance of + Nombre + lie.
    * minimizar la importancia = minimise + importance.
    * nada de importancia = nothing in particular.
    * no darle demasiada importancia a Algo = think + little of.
    * no darle demasiada importancia a + Infinitivo = think + nothing of + Gerundio.
    * no darle importancia a = think + very little about/of.
    * no percatarse de la importancia de Algo = have + no feeling for.
    * no poder dejar de recalcar la importancia de Algo = cannot + give + too much emphasis + to the importance of, the importance of + Nombre + cannot be stressed too strongly.
    * no se puede dejar de recalcar la importancia de Algo = the importance of + Nombre + cannot be overemphasised, the importance of + Nombre + cannot be overstressed, the importance of + Nombre + cannot be overstated.
    * no tener importancia = be of no importance, make + no difference, be of no consequence.
    * no tener la menor importancia = be of no particular concern.
    * ordenar por orden de importancia = rank + in order.
    * orden decreciente de importancia = decreasing order of importance.
    * orden de importancia = significance order of terms, pecking order, significance order.
    * pérdida de importancia = demise, swing away from.
    * poca importancia = unimportance, low profile.
    * poner de relieve la importancia = underscore + importance.
    * prestar importancia a = place + weight on.
    * que le presta gran importancia a la cultura = culture-conscious.
    * quitar importancia = de-emphasise [de-emphasize, -USA], understate, trivialise [trivialize, -USA], minimise + importance, downplay, gloss over, negate, soft-pedal.
    * quitar importancia a un problema = trivialise + trouble.
    * quitarle importancia a las cosas = make + light of things.
    * realzar la importancia = heighten + importance.
    * recalcar la importancia de = stress + the importance of.
    * recibir importancia = enjoy + prominence.
    * remarcar la importancia = underline + importance.
    * resaltar la importancia = underscore + importance.
    * resaltar la importancia de = stress + the importance of, emphasise + the importance of, highlight + the importance of.
    * restar importancia = minimise + importance, downplay, gloss over, negate, soft-pedal.
    * restarle importancia a las cosas = make + light of things.
    * ser de importancia primordial = be of key importance.
    * ser de importancia vital = lie at + the heart of.
    * sin darle importancia = airily.
    * sin importancia = negligible, unimportant, trifling, immaterial, of no consequence.
    * subrayar la importancia = underline + importance, underscore + importance.
    * tema de secundaria importancia = footnote.
    * tener gran importancia = be of high significance.
    * tener importancia = carry + weight, have + high profile, be of consequence.
    * tener la misma importancia = carry + equal weight.

    * * *
    importance
    temas de gran importancia matters of great importance o significance o ( frml) of great import
    ésos son detalles sin importancia those are minor o unimportant o insignificant details
    trató de quitarle or restarle importancia al problema she tried to make light of the problem, she tried to play down the importance of the problem
    no debemos darle tanta importancia a este tema we should not make so much of this matter, we should not attach too much importance to this matter
    siento llegar tarde — no tiene importancia I'm sorry I'm late — it doesn't matter
    ¿y eso qué importancia tiene? so what?
    darse importancia to give oneself airs
    * * *

     

    importancia sustantivo femenino
    importance;

    quitarle importancia a algo to play down the importance of sth;
    detalles sin importancia minor o insignificant details;
    no tiene importancia it doesn't matter;
    darse importancia to give oneself airs
    importancia sustantivo femenino importance, significance: no te preocupes, no tiene importancia, don't worry, it's nothing
    el accidente fue de cierta importancia, the accident was quite serious
    dar importancia a, to attach importance to
    quitarle importancia a algo, to play down the importance of sthg
    sin importancia, unimportant
    ♦ Locuciones: darse importancia, to give oneself airs

    ' importancia' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    acento
    - acentuar
    - alta
    - alto
    - bagatela
    - calibre
    - cobrar
    - conceder
    - dimensión
    - énfasis
    - entidad
    - envergadura
    - escatológico
    - fallo
    - ignorar
    - incidir
    - insignificancia
    - insistir
    - interés
    - levedad
    - marcar
    - minúscula
    - minúsculo
    - niñería
    - palidecer
    - pequeña
    - pequeño
    - primera
    - primero
    - primordial
    - protagonismo
    - quitar
    - recalcar
    - relativa
    - relativo
    - relieve
    - representar
    - restar
    - revestir
    - subrayar
    - suceso
    - suma
    - sumo
    - talla
    - tontería
    - valor
    - vital
    - vuelo
    - alguno
    - capital
    English:
    account
    - attach
    - count
    - emphasize
    - importance
    - incidental
    - irrelevant
    - issue
    - light
    - little
    - major
    - matter
    - mind
    - minimize
    - minor
    - moment
    - momentous
    - override
    - paramount
    - play down
    - primary
    - prime
    - prominence
    - read
    - ride
    - shrug off
    - significance
    - smooth over
    - store
    - thrust forward
    - unimportant
    - vital
    - vitally
    - all
    - all right
    - consideration
    - descend
    - detail
    - emphasis
    - gloss
    - hot
    - import
    - magistrate
    - menial
    - play
    - small
    - trifling
    - utmost
    * * *
    importance;
    de importancia important, of importance;
    un tratamiento médico reservado a los casos de importancia a treatment reserved for serious cases;
    un arquitecto de importancia an important architect;
    recibió un golpe de cierta importancia he took a fairly heavy knock;
    adquirir o [m5] cobrar importancia to become important, to take on significance;
    dar importancia a algo to attach importance to sth;
    darse importancia to give oneself airs;
    no tiene importancia [no es importante] it's not important;
    [no pasa nada] it doesn't matter;
    sin importancia unimportant;
    ha sido un rasguño sin importancia it's only a little scratch;
    quitar o [m5] restar importancia a algo to play sth down
    * * *
    f importance;
    dar importancia a attach importance to;
    restar importancia a algo make light of sth, play sth down;
    tener importancia be important;
    no tiene importancia it’s not important, it doesn’t matter;
    sin importancia unimportant;
    darse importancia give o.s. airs
    * * *
    : importance
    * * *
    importancia n importance
    darse importancia to give yourself airs [pt. gave; pp. given]
    tener importancia to be important / to matter

    Spanish-English dictionary > importancia

  • 14 área

    f.
    1 area, surface, surface area.
    2 domain, area, field, realm.
    3 place, locality, region, area.
    4 area, room, space.
    * * *
    (Takes el in sing)
    1 (zona) area, zone
    2 (medida) are
    \
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    SF
    1) (=zona, superficie) area

    área de castigo — (Dep) penalty area

    área de descanso — (Aut) rest area

    área de gol, área de meta — goal area

    área de penalty — (Dep) penalty area

    área de servicio — (Aut) service area

    2) (Inform)
    3) (=campo)
    4) (=medida) area ( 100 square metres)
    5)

    área metropolitana — metropolitan area, urban district

    área verde — Caribe green area, park area

    * * *
    femenino‡ area
    * * *
    = area, area, field, front, sphere, domain, zone, bit, radius, area, programme area, service area.
    Ex. The area in which standards for bibliographic description have had the most impact is in catalogues and catalogue record data bases.
    Ex. An area is a major section of the entry, comprising data of a particular category or serving a particular function.
    Ex. An appreciation of alternative approaches is particularly important in this field where trends towards standardisation are the norm.
    Ex. Present auguries on the resource front are not good.
    Ex. I am not convinced that people become connoisseurs -- experts: educated and discriminating people in any sphere -- from limited knowledge and experience, no matter how rich in quality.
    Ex. The CRONOS data bank includes a FISH domain, with data on catches and fleet statistics, and the COMEXT data bank covers the external trade statistics of fisheries.
    Ex. But now the traditional industrial zone is declining and a new 'technopolis' is proposed for the area.
    Ex. The assistant in charge of a section will see that their bit is kept tidy and will keep an eye open for thieves.
    Ex. The fact that the library can only attract people within a relatively small radius means that it has no alternative but to serve whoever lives -- or works -- in that radius.
    Ex. Libraries usually arrange separate areas where current periodicals, maps, government publications, early printed books and manuscripts are housed.
    Ex. Now that financial stringencies were the order of the day, libraries had to compete with the more pressing needs of other programme areas, like education, social services, and housing, for dwindling resources.
    Ex. The study examined the relative use of different service areas of the library = El estudio analizó al uso relativo de las diferentes zonas de la biblioteca.
    ----
    * análisis de áreas del conocimiento = domain analysis.
    * área chica, el = six-yard box, the.
    * área clave = key area.
    * área de acción = remit.
    * área de actuación = area for action, area of policy, policy area.
    * área de aplicación comercial = niche.
    * área de aterrizaje = landing site, landing area.
    * área de comunicación = communications area.
    * área de conocimiento = area of study.
    * área de conservación del patrimonio = heritage field.
    * área de datos específicos de la clase de documento = material (or type of publication) specific details area.
    * área de datos matemáticos = mathematical data area.
    * área de descanso = rest area, rest stop, lay-by.
    * área de descripción = area of description.
    * área de descripción física = physical description area.
    * área de edición = edition area.
    * área de ejemplar = copy area.
    * área de encabezamiento = header area.
    * área de especialización = niche, area of competence.
    * área de estudio = study area, study area.
    * área de formación = teaching unit.
    * área de influencia = remit.
    * área de información = communications area.
    * área de interés = field of interest.
    * área de la biblioteconomía = library field.
    * área del conocimiento = area of knowledge, discipline, subject field, field of activity, knowledge domain, discipline of knowledge.
    * área de lectura = reading floor.
    * área del número normalizado y de las condiciones de adquisición = International Standard Book Number and terms of availability area, standard number and terms of availability area.
    * área de notas = note area.
    * área de numeración de la ficha = card counter area.
    * área de préstamo = checkout area.
    * área de publicación = publication, distribution etc. area.
    * area de publicación o distribución = imprint.
    * área de serie = series area, series statement area.
    * área de signatura topográfica = shelf list area.
    * área de título y de mención de responsabilidad = title and statement of responsibility area.
    * área en desarrollo = growth area.
    * área específica = niche.
    * área flotante del programa = transient program area (TPA).
    * área geográfica = geographical area.
    * área marginada = deprived area.
    * area menos favorecida = less favoured area.
    * área metropolitana = metropolitan area, metro area.
    * área metropolitana de Londres, el = Greater London.
    * área rural = rural region.
    * área temática = subject area, subject field, topic area.
    * area temática específica = narrow subject area.
    * área urbana = urban area.
    * área útil = floor area, floor space.
    * bibliógrafo especializado en un área temática = area bibliographer.
    * conocimiento de un área temática = area knowledge.
    * empleado de línea aérea = airline official.
    * en el área de + Lugar = Lugar + area.
    * en las áreas de = in the areas of.
    * especializado en un área temática = domain-specific.
    * examen de área = area scanning.
    * particular a un área = localised [localized, -USA].
    * trabajador en el área de cultura = cultural worker.
    * WAN (red de área amplia) = WAN (wide area network).
    * * *
    femenino‡ area
    * * *
    = area, area, field, front, sphere, domain, zone, bit, radius, area, programme area, service area.

    Ex: The area in which standards for bibliographic description have had the most impact is in catalogues and catalogue record data bases.

    Ex: An area is a major section of the entry, comprising data of a particular category or serving a particular function.
    Ex: An appreciation of alternative approaches is particularly important in this field where trends towards standardisation are the norm.
    Ex: Present auguries on the resource front are not good.
    Ex: I am not convinced that people become connoisseurs -- experts: educated and discriminating people in any sphere -- from limited knowledge and experience, no matter how rich in quality.
    Ex: The CRONOS data bank includes a FISH domain, with data on catches and fleet statistics, and the COMEXT data bank covers the external trade statistics of fisheries.
    Ex: But now the traditional industrial zone is declining and a new 'technopolis' is proposed for the area.
    Ex: The assistant in charge of a section will see that their bit is kept tidy and will keep an eye open for thieves.
    Ex: The fact that the library can only attract people within a relatively small radius means that it has no alternative but to serve whoever lives -- or works -- in that radius.
    Ex: Libraries usually arrange separate areas where current periodicals, maps, government publications, early printed books and manuscripts are housed.
    Ex: Now that financial stringencies were the order of the day, libraries had to compete with the more pressing needs of other programme areas, like education, social services, and housing, for dwindling resources.
    Ex: The study examined the relative use of different service areas of the library = El estudio analizó al uso relativo de las diferentes zonas de la biblioteca.
    * análisis de áreas del conocimiento = domain analysis.
    * área chica, el = six-yard box, the.
    * área clave = key area.
    * área de acción = remit.
    * área de actuación = area for action, area of policy, policy area.
    * área de aplicación comercial = niche.
    * área de aterrizaje = landing site, landing area.
    * área de comunicación = communications area.
    * área de conocimiento = area of study.
    * área de conservación del patrimonio = heritage field.
    * área de datos específicos de la clase de documento = material (or type of publication) specific details area.
    * área de datos matemáticos = mathematical data area.
    * área de descanso = rest area, rest stop, lay-by.
    * área de descripción = area of description.
    * área de descripción física = physical description area.
    * área de edición = edition area.
    * área de ejemplar = copy area.
    * área de encabezamiento = header area.
    * área de especialización = niche, area of competence.
    * área de estudio = study area, study area.
    * área de formación = teaching unit.
    * área de influencia = remit.
    * área de información = communications area.
    * área de interés = field of interest.
    * área de la biblioteconomía = library field.
    * área del conocimiento = area of knowledge, discipline, subject field, field of activity, knowledge domain, discipline of knowledge.
    * área de lectura = reading floor.
    * área del número normalizado y de las condiciones de adquisición = International Standard Book Number and terms of availability area, standard number and terms of availability area.
    * área de notas = note area.
    * área de numeración de la ficha = card counter area.
    * área de préstamo = checkout area.
    * área de publicación = publication, distribution etc. area.
    * area de publicación o distribución = imprint.
    * área de serie = series area, series statement area.
    * área de signatura topográfica = shelf list area.
    * área de título y de mención de responsabilidad = title and statement of responsibility area.
    * área en desarrollo = growth area.
    * área específica = niche.
    * área flotante del programa = transient program area (TPA).
    * área geográfica = geographical area.
    * área marginada = deprived area.
    * area menos favorecida = less favoured area.
    * área metropolitana = metropolitan area, metro area.
    * área metropolitana de Londres, el = Greater London.
    * área rural = rural region.
    * área temática = subject area, subject field, topic area.
    * area temática específica = narrow subject area.
    * área urbana = urban area.
    * área útil = floor area, floor space.
    * bibliógrafo especializado en un área temática = area bibliographer.
    * conocimiento de un área temática = area knowledge.
    * empleado de línea aérea = airline official.
    * en el área de + Lugar = Lugar + area.
    * en las áreas de = in the areas of.
    * especializado en un área temática = domain-specific.
    * examen de área = area scanning.
    * particular a un área = localised [localized, -USA].
    * trabajador en el área de cultura = cultural worker.
    * WAN (red de área amplia) = WAN (wide area network).

    * * *
    f‡
    A
    1 ( Mat) area
    2 [ Vocabulary notes (Spanish) ] (medida agraria) area, square dekameter* ( 100m2.)
    B
    1 (zona) area
    las áreas más afectadas por las inundaciones the areas worst affected by the flooding
    2 (campo, ámbito) area
    un área de las ciencias donde ha habido poca investigación an area of science where little research has been carried out
    3 ( Dep) tb
    área de castigo or penalty penalty area
    Compuestos:
    goal area
    rest area o stop ( AmE), lay-by ( BrE)
    service area, services (pl)
    penalty area
    metropolitan area, city
    goal area
    Single Euro Payments Area
    * * *

     

    área feminine noun taking masculine article in the singular
    area;
    área chica or pequeña goal area;

    área de servicio service area, services (pl)
    área sustantivo femenino
    1 (espacio delimitado) area
    área de servicio, service area
    2 (medida de superficie) hundred square metres
    3 (deportes) la falta se produjo dentro del área, the foul was committed inside the penalty area

    ' área' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    alrededor
    - anticiclón
    - antinuclear
    - arrabal
    - arrasar
    - barriada
    - barrio
    - borrasca
    - cabaña
    - capítulo
    - castigo
    - circunscribirse
    - comisionada
    - comisionado
    - concurrida
    - concurrido
    - construcción
    - cuenca
    - deprimida
    - deprimido
    - desarrollo
    - expandir
    - expolio
    - extensión
    - franca
    - franco
    - francófona
    - francófono
    - huerta
    - inmediaciones
    - interfluvio
    - latitud
    - milimétrica
    - milimétrico
    - órbita
    - parcela
    - poblada
    - poblado
    - polígono
    - prefijo
    - propia
    - propio
    - radio
    - rellano
    - sector
    - superficie
    - tendedero
    - trascender
    - triangular
    - vasta
    English:
    area
    - area code
    - belt
    - danger area
    - demonstrate
    - disaster area
    - enter
    - extent
    - grey area
    - industrial area
    - lay-by
    - mark out
    - metropolitan
    - penalty area
    - penalty box
    - province
    - restricted
    - service area
    - unemployment
    - well-known
    - bay
    - brief
    - built
    - canvass
    - catchment area
    - center
    - central
    - comb
    - constituency
    - country
    - cover
    - depot
    - depressed
    - develop
    - development
    - diverse
    - division
    - enclose
    - enlarge
    - extensive
    - field
    - fringe
    - incoming
    - living
    - moor
    - narrow
    - neighborhood
    - nice
    - out
    - over
    * * *
    1. [zona] area
    área de descanso [en carretera] Br lay-by, US rest area; Econ área (del) euro Euro zone; Econ área de libre comercio free trade area;
    área metropolitana metropolitan area;
    área protegida protected area;
    área de servicio [en carretera] service area
    2. [ámbito] area;
    la investigación en áreas como la inteligencia artificial research in areas such as artificial intelligence;
    una carrera del área de Ciencias a university course in a science subject;
    el responsable del área económica del partido the person in charge of the party's economic policy
    3. [medida] are, = 100 square metres
    4. Geom [superficie] area
    5. Dep
    área (de penalty o [m5] castigo) (penalty) area
    área grande eighteen-yard box, penalty area;
    área pequeña six-yard box
    * * *
    f area;
    área de influencia area of influence
    * * *
    área nf
    : area
    * * *
    1. (en general) area
    2. (en fútbol) penalty area

    Spanish-English dictionary > área

  • 15 termine

    m end
    ( confine) limit
    finance ( scadenza) deadline
    ( parola) term
    termini pl di consegna terms of delivery
    termine tecnico technical term
    a breve/lungo termine in the short/long term
    in altri termini in other words
    volgere al termine come to an end
    * * *
    termine s.m.
    1 ( confine) boundary; ( limite) limit (anche fig.): il fiume segna il termine del podere, the river marks the boundary of the farm; porre un termine a qlco., to set a limit to sthg.; rimanere entro i termini, (fig.) to remain within limits; tutto si può dire se si resta nei termini del buongusto, you are free to say whatever you want provided you don't exceed the limits of good taste
    2 ( limite di tempo, data) term; date, time: termine di scadenza, due (o expiry) date; il termine per la presentazione della domanda scadrà domani, tomorrow is the expiry date for sending in the application; entro i termini prescritti, within the set time limit (o prescribed time); termine ultimo, improrogabile, deadline; il lavoro deve essere finito entro il termine convenuto, the work must be finished within the term (o period) agreed upon; nel termine di sei mesi, within (the space of) six months; fissare un termine, to fix a date (o deadline); prolungare il termine, to extend the time (limit) // (banca): a lungo, breve termine, long-term, short-term; cambiale a breve termine, short-dated bill; obbligazioni a breve termine, short bonds // (comm.): termine di consegna, delivery term (o date); vendita a termine, forward sale; pagamento entro i termini stabiliti, on-term payment // (dir.) contratto a termine, forward (o time) contract // ( assicurazioni) polizza a termine, time policy // (Borsa): termini a pronti, spot terms; mercato a termine, futures market
    3 ( compimento, fine) end, close: al termine della riunione, at the end (o close) of the meeting; (sport) cinque giri al termine, five laps to the end; la lezione avrà termine alle quattro, the lesson will end at four; condurre a termine, to carry out; condurre a termine un lavoro, to carry out a job; giungere a un termine, to come to an end; mettere, porre termine a qlco., to put an end to sthg.; portare a termine un affare, to conclude a deal
    4 ( condizione, elemento costituente) term; main point: termini di un accordo, terms of an agreement; l'affare è stato definito in questi termini, the business has been presented in these terms; non conosco ancora i termini della questione, I still don't know what the main points of the question are; la situazione sta in questi termini, these are the main points of the question; non posso accettare i suoi termini, I cannot accept his terms // essere in buoni termini con qlcu., to be on good terms with s.o. // (dir.): i termini di un contratto, the terms of a contract; termini di legge, law terms; ai termini di legge, legally (o according to the law); termini processuali, terms of proceeding; termine ordinatorio, perentorio, dilatorio, non peremptory, peremptory, dilatory term // (comm.): termini di scambio, terms of trade; questi sono i termini del pagamento, these are the terms of payment
    5 ( parola, espressione) term, word: termine scientifico, tecnico, scientific, technical term; contraddizione in termini, contradiction in terms; in altri termini, in other words; una lettera nei seguenti termini, a letter reading as follows; parlò di te nei termini più favorevoli, he spoke about you in the most favourable terms; misurare, pesare i termini, to weigh one's words // modera i termini!, don't use such strong language! // usare, esprimersi in mezzi termini, to beat about the bush; senza mezzi termini, frankly // a rigor di termini, strictly speaking
    6 (mat., log.) term: i termini di una espressione matematica, the terms of a mathematical expression; i termini di un paragone, the terms of a comparison; ridurre una frazione ai minimi termini, to reduce a fraction to its lowest terms
    7 (gramm.) complemento di termine, indirect object.
    * * *
    ['tɛrmine] 1.
    sostantivo maschile
    1) end, conclusion

    al termine della riunione, dell'estate — at the end of the meeting, of summer

    portare a termine — to carry out [progetto, operazione, esperimento, studio]; to carry through [riforma, compito]; to bring off [ impresa]; to close [ vendita]; to finish [opera, costruzione]; to conclude [ affare]

    porre termine a qcs. — to put a stop to sth., to bring sth. to an end

    un bambino (nato) a termine — a baby born at term, a term baby

    2) (limite di tempo fissato) time-limit, term; (data limite) final date, expiry date

    termine improrogabile, massimo — deadline

    entro i -i previsti o stabiliti within the agreed time-limit; entro un termine di 6 mesi within 6 months; fare qcs. entro il termine stabilito to do sth. within the prescribed time; fissare un termine to fix a deadline, to set a time-limit; termine ultimo per le iscrizioni deadline, closing date for registration; a breve, medio, lungo termine [prestito, problema, strategia] short-, medium-, long-term; [titoli, investimenti] short-, medium-, long-dated; contratto a termine — temporary o terminable contract

    3) (parola) term, word

    termine tecnico, medico — technical, medical term

    modera i -i per favore! — watch your language, please!

    senza mezzi -i — in the strongest possible terms, in no uncertain terms

    4) mat. term

    ridurre qcs. ai minimi -i — fig. to reduce sth. to the lowest common denominator o to the lowest terms

    5) ling.
    2.
    sostantivo maschile plurale termini
    1) (condizioni) terms

    secondo i -i del contratto — under o by the terms of the contract

    a(i) -i di legge — within the meaning of the act, as by law enabled

    in -i di profitto, produttività — in terms of profit, productivity

    •

    termine di paragone — ling. element of comparison

    * * *
    termine
    /'tεrmine/
    I sostantivo m.
     1 end, conclusion; al termine della riunione, dell'estate at the end of the meeting, of summer; portare a termine to carry out [progetto, operazione, esperimento, studio]; to carry through [riforma, compito]; to bring off [ impresa]; to close [ vendita]; to finish [opera, costruzione]; to conclude [ affare]; portare a termine una gravidanza to carry a pregnancy through to full term; porre termine a qcs. to put a stop to sth., to bring sth. to an end; un bambino (nato) a termine a baby born at term, a term baby
     2 (limite di tempo fissato) time-limit, term; (data limite) final date, expiry date; termine improrogabile, massimo deadline; entro i -i previsti o stabiliti within the agreed time-limit; entro un termine di 6 mesi within 6 months; fare qcs. entro il termine stabilito to do sth. within the prescribed time; fissare un termine to fix a deadline, to set a time-limit; termine ultimo per le iscrizioni deadline, closing date for registration; a breve, medio, lungo termine [prestito, problema, strategia] short-, medium-, long-term; [titoli, investimenti] short-, medium-, long-dated; contratto a termine temporary o terminable contract
     3 (parola) term, word; termine tecnico, medico technical, medical term; in altri -i in other words; è una contraddizione in -i it's a contradiction in terms o a self-contradiction; mi perdoni il termine if you'll excuse the expression; modera i -i per favore! watch your language, please! senza mezzi -i in the strongest possible terms, in no uncertain terms
     4 mat. term; ridurre una frazione ai minimi -i to reduce a fraction to the lowest terms; ridurre qcs. ai minimi -i fig. to reduce sth. to the lowest common denominator o to the lowest terms
     5 ling. complemento di termine indirect object
    II termini m.pl.
     1 (condizioni) terms; secondo i -i del contratto under o by the terms of the contract; - i di scambio terms of trade; a(i) -i di legge within the meaning of the act, as by law enabled; la questione si pone in questi -i the question is this
     2 (punto di vista) in -i di in terms of; in -i di profitto, produttività in terms of profit, productivity
    termine di consegna delivery date; termine di paragone ling. element of comparison.

    Dizionario Italiano-Inglese > termine

  • 16 continuar

    v.
    1 to continue, to go on, to carry on with.
    los peregrinos continuaron su camino the pilgrims went or continued on their way
    continuar haciendo algo to continue doing o to do something
    continúa lloviendo it's still raining
    todavía continúa en la empresa she's still with o working for the company
    continuará to be continued (historia, programa)
    El suplicio continuó The torture continued.
    María continuó el trabajo de Ricardo Mary continued John's work.
    Me continúa el dolor My pain persists=continues.
    2 to keep on, to continue to.
    Yo continúo estudiando I keep on studying.
    3 to continue to be.
    * * *
    Conjugation model [ ACTUAR], like link=actuar actuar
    1 (proseguir) to continue, carry on
    1 (permanecer, durar) to continue, go on
    1 (extenderse) to extend, run
    \
    'Continuará' (capítulos, episodios, etc) "To be continued"
    * * *
    verb
    to continue, go on
    * * *
    1.

    continuaremos la clase mañana — we will go on with o continue the lesson tomorrow

    continuó su vida como antes — he went on with o continued with his life as before

    2. VI
    1) [historia, espectáculo, guerra] to continue, go on

    continúe, por favor — please continue, please go on

    "continuará" — "to be continued"

    pase lo que pase, la vida continúa — come what may, life goes on

    2) [en una situación]

    la puerta continúa cerrada — the door is still shut, the door remains shut frm

    continúa muy grave — she is still in a critical condition, she remains in a critical condition frm

    continúa en el mismo puesto de trabajo — she is still in the same post, she remains in the same post frm

    • continuar con algo — to continue with sth, go on with sth

    continuó con su trabajo — he continued with o went on with his work

    continuar con salud — to be still in good health, remain in good health frm

    • continuar haciendo algo, continuó leyendo — she continued to read o reading, she went on reading

    a pesar de todo, continúa diciendo lo que piensa — in spite of everything, she continues to speak her mind o she still speaks her mind

    en cualquier caso continúo siendo optimista — in any case, I remain optimistic o I am still optimistic

    3) [camino, carretera] to continue, go on, carry on

    el camino continúa hasta la costa — the road continues o goes on o carries on (all the way) to the coast

    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo to continue
    2.
    a) guerra/espectáculo/vida to continue

    continuar + ger: su estado continúa siendo delicado he is still in a weak condition; continúa negándose a declarar she is still refusing to make a statement; continuó diciendo que... — she went on to say that...

    b) carretera to continue
    3.
    continuarse v pron (frml) to continue
    * * *
    = continue, go on, linger on, move on, persevere, persist, wrap, keep + going, proceed, push on, press on, recommence, run over, move forward, hang on, carry forward, carry on, go ahead, carry through, soldier on, keep up, roll on, take it from here.
    Ex. Thus our catalogs will continue to fail our readers until reconstructed on the basis of the AACR, which has remedied the situation by providing for the consistent use of uniform titles wherever required.
    Ex. Several members of the group raised polite brows and implored him to go on.
    Ex. The song may be forgotten but among library users the sentiment lingers on.
    Ex. Rather readers grow by fits and starts now rushing ahead, now lying fallow, and now moving steadily on.
    Ex. It would be uneconomic and foolish to persevere with human assignment of controlled-language terms.
    Ex. Nevertheless, it cannot yet be said that all cataloguing is conducted with the use of a computer, and even some major library systems persist with manual cataloguing practices.
    Ex. If the width of the report exceeds the line width of your printer, the information will wrap to the next line.
    Ex. This article presents ideas which will help the librarian to keep going in the face of budget cuts.
    Ex. Before we proceed to look at the operators in detail, a couple of examples may help to make the layout clearer.
    Ex. I think we'd better push on to the next topic.
    Ex. Hoping the gentler tone and the more relaxed manner meant that her anger was abating, the young man pressed on less apprehensively.
    Ex. 'Well,' recommenced the young librarian, buoyed up by the director's interest, 'I believe that everybody is a good employee until they prove differently to me'.
    Ex. An initiative for environmental education which will run over the next few years focuses on Victoria region by region.
    Ex. This article argues the need to move forward with the infotech culture without abandoning the service culture.
    Ex. In libraries, this life cycle may be interrupted because of staff reluctance to part with traditional services, and products may hang on long past the point of real effectiveness.
    Ex. In order to carry forward the Chinese cultural heritage it is necessary to research the ancient books.
    Ex. If a child detects that no very strong value is placed on reading then he feels no compulsion to develop his own reading skill beyond the minimal, functional level we all need simply to carry on our daily lives in our print-dominated society.
    Ex. A plan for the construction and implementation phases will be drawn up, if it is decided to go ahead = Si se decide continuar, se elaborará un plan para las fases de construcción y puesta en práctica.
    Ex. Any changes will produce a readjustment of text which will carry through to the end of the text.
    Ex. Russell soldiered on in 'Principles of Mathematics', he pleaded a distinction between analysis by way of philosophical definitions and analysis by way of mathematical definitions.
    Ex. He was told to ' keep up whatever it is he was doing' because he was doing great!.
    Ex. But to make matters worse, and as the drought rolls on, it is very likely that it won't rain again until October or November.
    Ex. I had intended to walk him to his classroom, but before I could follow him through the double doors, he said, 'I can take it from here, Papa'.
    ----
    * batalla + continuar = battle + rage.
    * continuando con la línea de = in the vein of.
    * continuar al lado de = stand by.
    * continuar así = keep + it up, keep up + the good work, keep up + the great work.
    * continuar a trancas y barrancas = bash on.
    * continuar avanzando = press on.
    * continuar como antes = go on + as before.
    * continuar con = go ahead with, proceed to, pursue, pursue + Nombre + further, stick to, build on/upon, go on with, maintain + continuity, maintain + momentum, stick with, stick at.
    * continuar con Algo = take + Nombre + further.
    * continuar con el buen hacer = keep up + the good work, keep up + the great work.
    * continuar con la lectura de = carry on through.
    * continuar con + Nombre + en = carry + Nombre + forward into.
    * continuar diciendo = go on.
    * continuar en = overflow on.
    * continuar en esta dirección = proceed + along this way.
    * continuar enviando + Nombre = keep + Nombre + coming.
    * continuar + Gerundio = go on + Gerundio, keep + Gerundio, keep on + Gerundio.
    * continuar haciendo Algo = get on with + Nombre.
    * continuar implacablemente = march on.
    * continuar inexorablemente = march on.
    * continuar irreconciliable con = remain + unreconciled to.
    * continuar la labor de otros = stand on + the shoulders of giants, stand on + the shoulders of giants, stand on + the shoulders of giants.
    * continuar leyendo = read on.
    * continuar opuesto a = remain + unreconciled to.
    * continuar + Posesivo camino = continue on + Posesivo + way.
    * continuar realizando una actividad = keep + going.
    * continuar siendo = remain.
    * continuar siendo importante = remain + big.
    * continuar sin agraciarse con = remain + unreconciled to.
    * continuar sin detenerse = go straight ahead.
    * continuar sin reconciliarse son = remain + unreconciled to.
    * continuar tratando = pursue + Nombre + further.
    * continuar viviendo = live on.
    * continuar vivo = live on.
    * disputa + continuar = dispute + rage.
    * estar decidido a continuar = be set to continue.
    * la vida continúa = the show must go on.
    * la vida + continuar = life + go on.
    * polémica + continuar = controversy + rage, argument + rage.
    * todo continúa como antes = life goes on as before.
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo to continue
    2.
    a) guerra/espectáculo/vida to continue

    continuar + ger: su estado continúa siendo delicado he is still in a weak condition; continúa negándose a declarar she is still refusing to make a statement; continuó diciendo que... — she went on to say that...

    b) carretera to continue
    3.
    continuarse v pron (frml) to continue
    * * *
    = continue, go on, linger on, move on, persevere, persist, wrap, keep + going, proceed, push on, press on, recommence, run over, move forward, hang on, carry forward, carry on, go ahead, carry through, soldier on, keep up, roll on, take it from here.

    Ex: Thus our catalogs will continue to fail our readers until reconstructed on the basis of the AACR, which has remedied the situation by providing for the consistent use of uniform titles wherever required.

    Ex: Several members of the group raised polite brows and implored him to go on.
    Ex: The song may be forgotten but among library users the sentiment lingers on.
    Ex: Rather readers grow by fits and starts now rushing ahead, now lying fallow, and now moving steadily on.
    Ex: It would be uneconomic and foolish to persevere with human assignment of controlled-language terms.
    Ex: Nevertheless, it cannot yet be said that all cataloguing is conducted with the use of a computer, and even some major library systems persist with manual cataloguing practices.
    Ex: If the width of the report exceeds the line width of your printer, the information will wrap to the next line.
    Ex: This article presents ideas which will help the librarian to keep going in the face of budget cuts.
    Ex: Before we proceed to look at the operators in detail, a couple of examples may help to make the layout clearer.
    Ex: I think we'd better push on to the next topic.
    Ex: Hoping the gentler tone and the more relaxed manner meant that her anger was abating, the young man pressed on less apprehensively.
    Ex: 'Well,' recommenced the young librarian, buoyed up by the director's interest, 'I believe that everybody is a good employee until they prove differently to me'.
    Ex: An initiative for environmental education which will run over the next few years focuses on Victoria region by region.
    Ex: This article argues the need to move forward with the infotech culture without abandoning the service culture.
    Ex: In libraries, this life cycle may be interrupted because of staff reluctance to part with traditional services, and products may hang on long past the point of real effectiveness.
    Ex: In order to carry forward the Chinese cultural heritage it is necessary to research the ancient books.
    Ex: If a child detects that no very strong value is placed on reading then he feels no compulsion to develop his own reading skill beyond the minimal, functional level we all need simply to carry on our daily lives in our print-dominated society.
    Ex: A plan for the construction and implementation phases will be drawn up, if it is decided to go ahead = Si se decide continuar, se elaborará un plan para las fases de construcción y puesta en práctica.
    Ex: Any changes will produce a readjustment of text which will carry through to the end of the text.
    Ex: Russell soldiered on in 'Principles of Mathematics', he pleaded a distinction between analysis by way of philosophical definitions and analysis by way of mathematical definitions.
    Ex: He was told to ' keep up whatever it is he was doing' because he was doing great!.
    Ex: But to make matters worse, and as the drought rolls on, it is very likely that it won't rain again until October or November.
    Ex: I had intended to walk him to his classroom, but before I could follow him through the double doors, he said, 'I can take it from here, Papa'.
    * batalla + continuar = battle + rage.
    * continuando con la línea de = in the vein of.
    * continuar al lado de = stand by.
    * continuar así = keep + it up, keep up + the good work, keep up + the great work.
    * continuar a trancas y barrancas = bash on.
    * continuar avanzando = press on.
    * continuar como antes = go on + as before.
    * continuar con = go ahead with, proceed to, pursue, pursue + Nombre + further, stick to, build on/upon, go on with, maintain + continuity, maintain + momentum, stick with, stick at.
    * continuar con Algo = take + Nombre + further.
    * continuar con el buen hacer = keep up + the good work, keep up + the great work.
    * continuar con la lectura de = carry on through.
    * continuar con + Nombre + en = carry + Nombre + forward into.
    * continuar diciendo = go on.
    * continuar en = overflow on.
    * continuar en esta dirección = proceed + along this way.
    * continuar enviando + Nombre = keep + Nombre + coming.
    * continuar + Gerundio = go on + Gerundio, keep + Gerundio, keep on + Gerundio.
    * continuar haciendo Algo = get on with + Nombre.
    * continuar implacablemente = march on.
    * continuar inexorablemente = march on.
    * continuar irreconciliable con = remain + unreconciled to.
    * continuar la labor de otros = stand on + the shoulders of giants, stand on + the shoulders of giants, stand on + the shoulders of giants.
    * continuar leyendo = read on.
    * continuar opuesto a = remain + unreconciled to.
    * continuar + Posesivo camino = continue on + Posesivo + way.
    * continuar realizando una actividad = keep + going.
    * continuar siendo = remain.
    * continuar siendo importante = remain + big.
    * continuar sin agraciarse con = remain + unreconciled to.
    * continuar sin detenerse = go straight ahead.
    * continuar sin reconciliarse son = remain + unreconciled to.
    * continuar tratando = pursue + Nombre + further.
    * continuar viviendo = live on.
    * continuar vivo = live on.
    * disputa + continuar = dispute + rage.
    * estar decidido a continuar = be set to continue.
    * la vida continúa = the show must go on.
    * la vida + continuar = life + go on.
    * polémica + continuar = controversy + rage, argument + rage.
    * todo continúa como antes = life goes on as before.

    * * *
    vt
    to continue
    va a continuar sus estudios en el extranjero she's going to continue her studies abroad
    continuó su vida como si nada hubiera pasado he went on with o continued with his life as if nothing had happened
    sus discípulos continuaron su obra her disciples carried on o continued her work
    continuemos la marcha let's go on o carry on
    —y eso sería un desastre —continuó and that would be catastrophic, he went on o continued
    ■ continuar
    vi
    1 «guerra/espectáculo/vida» to continue
    si las cosas continúan así if things go on o continue like this
    [ S ] continuará to be continued
    la película continúa en cartelera the movie is still showing
    continúe la defensa (counsel for) the defense may continue
    continuar CON algo to continue WITH sth
    no pudieron continuar con el trabajo they couldn't continue (with) o go on with the work
    continuar + GER:
    su estado continúa siendo delicado he is still in a weak condition
    continúa negándose a declarar she is still refusing to make a statement
    si continúas comportándote así if you continue to behave o go on behaving like this
    continuó diciendo que … she went on to say that …, she continued by saying that …
    2 «carretera» to continue
    la carretera continúa hasta la parte alta de la montaña the road continues (on) to the top of the mountain, the road goes on up to the top of the mountain
    ( frml); to continue
    el camino se continúa en un angosto sendero the road continues as a narrow path
    su obra se continuó en la labor de sus discípulos his work was continued in the labor of his disciples
    * * *

     

    continuar ( conjugate continuar) verbo transitivo
    to continue
    verbo intransitivo [guerra/espectáculo/vida] to continue;
    ◊ si las cosas continúan así if things go on o continue like this;


    ( on signs) continuará to be continued;

    continuar con algo to continue with sth;
    continuó diciendo que … she went on to say that …
    continuar verbo transitivo & verbo intransitivo
    1 to continue, carry on (with)
    2 (seguir en un lugar) continúa viviendo en Brasil, he's still living in Brazil
    3 (seguir sucediendo) continúa lloviendo, it is still raining
    (una película) continuará, to be continued ➣ Ver nota en continue

    ' continuar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    incapaz
    - perdurar
    - seguir
    English:
    carry on
    - continue
    - go ahead
    - go on
    - keep
    - keep on
    - keep up
    - remain
    - resume
    - carry
    - go
    - hold
    - move
    - proceed
    - pursue
    - take
    - wear
    * * *
    ♦ vt
    to continue, to carry on with;
    los peregrinos continuaron su camino the pilgrims went o continued on their way;
    continuarán el partido suspendido mañana the abandoned match will be continued tomorrow
    ♦ vi
    to continue, to go on;
    continuar haciendo algo to continue doing o to do sth;
    continúa lloviendo it's still raining;
    ¿continúas viviendo en Brasil? are you still living in Brazil?, do you still live in Brazil?;
    continuamos trabajando en el mismo proyecto we are still working on the same project;
    continúan con el proyecto they are carrying on with o continuing with the project;
    todavía continúa en la empresa she's still with o working for the company;
    continúen en sus puestos hasta nueva orden stay at your posts until you receive fresh orders;
    continuará [historia, programa] to be continued;
    la finca continúa hasta el río the farm extends as far as the river;
    el camino continúa por la costa the road continues o carries on along the coast
    * * *
    I v/t continue
    II v/i continue;
    continuará to be continued;
    continuar haciendo algo continue o carry on doing sth;
    continuó nevando it kept on snowing
    * * *
    continuar {3} v
    : to continue
    * * *
    1. to continue / to carry on [pt. & pp. carried]
    continuaremos el debate después de comer we'll continue the discussion after lunch / we'll carry on with the discussion after lunch
    2. (estar todavía) to be still

    Spanish-English dictionary > continuar

  • 17 Creativity

       Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)
       Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)
       There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)
       he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)
       he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)
       From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)
       Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)
       The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)
       In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)
       he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)
        11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with Disorder
       Even to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)
       New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)
       [P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....
       Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)
       A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....
       Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity

  • 18 Psychology

       We come therefore now to that knowledge whereunto the ancient oracle directeth us, which is the knowledge of ourselves; which deserveth the more accurate handling, by how much it toucheth us more nearly. This knowledge, as it is the end and term of natural philosophy in the intention of man, so notwithstanding it is but a portion of natural philosophy in the continent of nature.... [W]e proceed to human philosophy or Humanity, which hath two parts: the one considereth man segregate, or distributively; the other congregate, or in society. So as Human philosophy is either Simple and Particular, or Conjugate and Civil. Humanity Particular consisteth of the same parts whereof man consisteth; that is, of knowledges which respect the Body, and of knowledges that respect the Mind... how the one discloseth the other and how the one worketh upon the other... [:] the one is honored with the inquiry of Aristotle, and the other of Hippocrates. (Bacon, 1878, pp. 236-237)
       The claims of Psychology to rank as a distinct science are... not smaller but greater than those of any other science. If its phenomena are contemplated objectively, merely as nervo-muscular adjustments by which the higher organisms from moment to moment adapt their actions to environing co-existences and sequences, its degree of specialty, even then, entitles it to a separate place. The moment the element of feeling, or consciousness, is used to interpret nervo-muscular adjustments as thus exhibited in the living beings around, objective Psychology acquires an additional, and quite exceptional, distinction. (Spencer, 1896, p. 141)
       Kant once declared that psychology was incapable of ever raising itself to the rank of an exact natural science. The reasons that he gives... have often been repeated in later times. In the first place, Kant says, psychology cannot become an exact science because mathematics is inapplicable to the phenomena of the internal sense; the pure internal perception, in which mental phenomena must be constructed,-time,-has but one dimension. In the second place, however, it cannot even become an experimental science, because in it the manifold of internal observation cannot be arbitrarily varied,-still less, another thinking subject be submitted to one's experiments, comformably to the end in view; moreover, the very fact of observation means alteration of the observed object. (Wundt, 1904, p. 6)
       It is [Gustav] Fechner's service to have found and followed the true way; to have shown us how a "mathematical psychology" may, within certain limits, be realized in practice.... He was the first to show how Herbart's idea of an "exact psychology" might be turned to practical account. (Wundt, 1904, pp. 6-7)
       "Mind," "intellect," "reason," "understanding," etc. are concepts... that existed before the advent of any scientific psychology. The fact that the naive consciousness always and everywhere points to internal experience as a special source of knowledge, may, therefore, be accepted for the moment as sufficient testimony to the rights of psychology as science.... "Mind," will accordingly be the subject, to which we attribute all the separate facts of internal observation as predicates. The subject itself is determined p. 17) wholly and exclusively by its predicates. (Wundt, 1904,
       The study of animal psychology may be approached from two different points of view. We may set out from the notion of a kind of comparative physiology of mind, a universal history of the development of mental life in the organic world. Or we may make human psychology the principal object of investigation. Then, the expressions of mental life in animals will be taken into account only so far as they throw light upon the evolution of consciousness in man.... Human psychology... may confine itself altogether to man, and generally has done so to far too great an extent. There are plenty of psychological text-books from which you would hardly gather that there was any other conscious life than the human. (Wundt, 1907, pp. 340-341)
       The Behaviorist began his own formulation of the problem of psychology by sweeping aside all medieval conceptions. He dropped from his scientific vocabulary all subjective terms such as sensation, perception, image, desire, purpose, and even thinking and emotion as they were subjectively defined. (Watson, 1930, pp. 5-6)
       According to the medieval classification of the sciences, psychology is merely a chapter of special physics, although the most important chapter; for man is a microcosm; he is the central figure of the universe. (deWulf, 1956, p. 125)
       At the beginning of this century the prevailing thesis in psychology was Associationism.... Behavior proceeded by the stream of associations: each association produced its successors, and acquired new attachments with the sensations arriving from the environment.
       In the first decade of the century a reaction developed to this doctrine through the work of the Wurzburg school. Rejecting the notion of a completely self-determining stream of associations, it introduced the task ( Aufgabe) as a necessary factor in describing the process of thinking. The task gave direction to thought. A noteworthy innovation of the Wurzburg school was the use of systematic introspection to shed light on the thinking process and the contents of consciousness. The result was a blend of mechanics and phenomenalism, which gave rise in turn to two divergent antitheses, Behaviorism and the Gestalt movement. The behavioristic reaction insisted that introspection was a highly unstable, subjective procedure.... Behaviorism reformulated the task of psychology as one of explaining the response of organisms as a function of the stimuli impinging upon them and measuring both objectively. However, Behaviorism accepted, and indeed reinforced, the mechanistic assumption that the connections between stimulus and response were formed and maintained as simple, determinate functions of the environment.
       The Gestalt reaction took an opposite turn. It rejected the mechanistic nature of the associationist doctrine but maintained the value of phenomenal observation. In many ways it continued the Wurzburg school's insistence that thinking was more than association-thinking has direction given to it by the task or by the set of the subject. Gestalt psychology elaborated this doctrine in genuinely new ways in terms of holistic principles of organization.
       Today psychology lives in a state of relatively stable tension between the poles of Behaviorism and Gestalt psychology.... (Newell & Simon, 1963, pp. 279-280)
       As I examine the fate of our oppositions, looking at those already in existence as guide to how they fare and shape the course of science, it seems to me that clarity is never achieved. Matters simply become muddier and muddier as we go down through time. Thus, far from providing the rungs of a ladder by which psychology gradually climbs to clarity, this form of conceptual structure leads rather to an ever increasing pile of issues, which we weary of or become diverted from, but never really settle. (Newell, 1973b, pp. 288-289)
       The subject matter of psychology is as old as reflection. Its broad practical aims are as dated as human societies. Human beings, in any period, have not been indifferent to the validity of their knowledge, unconcerned with the causes of their behavior or that of their prey and predators. Our distant ancestors, no less than we, wrestled with the problems of social organization, child rearing, competition, authority, individual differences, personal safety. Solving these problems required insights-no matter how untutored-into the psychological dimensions of life. Thus, if we are to follow the convention of treating psychology as a young discipline, we must have in mind something other than its subject matter. We must mean that it is young in the sense that physics was young at the time of Archimedes or in the sense that geometry was "founded" by Euclid and "fathered" by Thales. Sailing vessels were launched long before Archimedes discovered the laws of bouyancy [ sic], and pillars of identical circumference were constructed before anyone knew that C IID. We do not consider the ship builders and stone cutters of antiquity physicists and geometers. Nor were the ancient cave dwellers psychologists merely because they rewarded the good conduct of their children. The archives of folk wisdom contain a remarkable collection of achievements, but craft-no matter how perfected-is not science, nor is a litany of successful accidents a discipline. If psychology is young, it is young as a scientific discipline but it is far from clear that psychology has attained this status. (Robinson, 1986, p. 12)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Psychology

  • 19 результат

    (см. также факт) result, effect, consequence, finding
    • Результат более общего типа формулируется следующим образом. - The following is a more general result of the same kind.
    • Более определенные результаты были сформулированы Смитом [1]. - More definite results have been formulated by Smith [1].
    • В действительности данный результат означает, что... - This result means, in effect, that...
    • В результате практически все, работающие в данной области, желали допустить, что... - As a result, practically everyone in the field was willing to admit that...
    • В результате преобразования уравнение (1) принимает вид... - After simplification equation (1) becomes...
    • В результате следует заключить, что... - Consequently, one must conclude that...
    • В результате существовала тенденция... - As a result, there has been a tendency to...
    • В результате этого происходит заметное уменьшение... - This results in a marked decrease in...
    • В результате, теперь достаточно лишь доказать, что... - Consequently it is enough to prove that...
    • В соответствии с данным результатом мы можем определить... - In accordance with this result, we may identify...
    • В то же самое время, данные результаты указывают, что... - At the same time, the results indicate that...
    • В этом приложении мы приводим результаты... - In this appendix we present the results of...
    • Важность данного результата состоит в том, что он четко устанавливает... - The importance of this result is that it clearly establishes...
    • Возможно, наилучший способ сформулировать результаты - это... - Probably the best way to express the results is to use...
    • Можно грубо выразить (= сформулировать) тот же результат, говоря, что... - This result is expressed roughly by saying that...
    • Данный результат должен выглядеть знакомым любому, кто изучал... - This result should look familiar to anyone who has studied...
    • Данный результат допускает простую геометрическую интерпретацию. - The result admits a simple geometrical interpretation.
    • Данный результат имеет простую физическую интерпретацию. - This result has a simple physical interpretation.
    • Данный результат может быть сформулирован в несколько более простой форме следующим образом. - This result can be written in a slightly simpler form as follows.
    • Данный результат находится в полном согласии с... - The result is in perfect agreement with...
    • Данный результат объясняет/разъясняет... - This result explains...
    • Данный результат объясняется и качественно, и количественно предположением, что... - This result is both qualitatively and quantitatively explained by the assumption that...
    • Данный результат окажется полезным при обсуждении (чего-л). - This result will prove useful in the discussion of...
    • Данный результат остается справедливым, если... - The result remains true if...
    • Данный результат принадлежит Гауссу. - This result is due to Gauss.
    • Данный результат следует немедленно, если мы можем показать, что... - The result will follow immediately if we can show that...
    • Данный результат согласуется с... - This result is in agreement with...
    • Данный результат также может быть получен с применением... - This result can also be obtained by the application of...
    • Данный результат, который можно легко проверить, состоит в том, что... - The result, which may be easily verified, is...
    • Для того, чтобы доказать этот результат, мы должны, во-первых, вычислить... - In order to prove this result we must first calculate...
    • Другой интересный результат, принадлежащий Риману, состоит в том, что... - Another interesting result, due to Riemann, is. that...
    • Другой способ получения того же результата появляется, если заметить, что... - Another way of obtaining the same result is to note that...
    • Его результаты могут быть подытожены следующей теоремой. - His results may be summed up in the following theorem.
    • Если мы используем результат (7), то видим, что... - If we make use of the result (7) we see that...
    • Еще один интересный результат - это... - One further result of interest is that...
    • Еще одним следствием этих результатов является то, что... - One further consequence of these results is that...
    • За исключение последнего, все эти результаты немедленно вытекают из того факта, что... - All these results except the last follow immediately from the fact that...
    • Значение этого последнего результата состоит в том, что... - The significance of this last result is that...
    • Значительно лучший результат мог быть получен, если использовать... - A much better result would have been obtained using...
    • Из... можно вывести много полезных результатов. - Many useful results may be deduced from...
    • Из вышеуказанного утверждения следует дополнительный результат. - The above argument gives us the following additional result.
    • Из предыдущих результатов вытекает, что... - It follows from the foregoing results that...
    • Из процитированных выше результатов следует, что... - From the results quoted above it follows that...
    • Из результатов последнего параграфа становится ясно, что... - It is apparent from the last section that...
    • Из результатов экспериментов Смит [1] заключил, что... - From the results of experiments, Smith [1] concluded that...
    • Из этих результатов вытекает, что... - These results imply that...
    • Используя результат (10), мы видим, что... - Making use of the result (10) we see that...
    • Используя этот результат... - With this result we can...
    • Используя этот результат, мы можем заключить... - With the help of this result we can deduce...
    • Исследование, продолжающееся два десятилетия, принесло удивительно немного результатов относительно... - Research spanning two decades has yielded surprisingly few results on...
    • Исходя из этих результатов, можно сконструировать... - Prom these results it is possible to construct...
    • Как мы можем понимать этот результат? - How can we understand this result?
    • Как мы уже видели, те же самые результаты предсказываются для... - As we have seen, the same results are predicted for...
    • Как побочный результат теоремы 4... - As a by-product of Theorem 4, we also obtain the convergence of...
    • Как приложение данного результата, мы покажем, что... -As an application of this result, we show that...
    • Как это показано ниже, этот результат можно также вывести непосредственно. - This result may also be derived directly as follows.
    • Количественный анализ этих результатов показывает, что... - A quantitative analysis of these results shows that...
    • Методом математической индукции этот результат может быть распространен на... - This result can be extended, by mathematical induction, to...
    • Многие идеи и результаты последней главы могут быть распространены на случай... - Many of the ideas and results of the last chapter can now be extended to the case of...
    • Многие из наших более ранних результатов могут быть лучше поняты, если... - Many of ounearlier results can be better understood if...
    • Можно было бы интерпретировать, что эти результаты означают, что... - These results might be interpreted to mean that...
    • Можно понять эти результаты, рассматривая... - One can understand these results by considering...
    • Мы используем этот результат, чтобы... - We shall apply this result to...
    • Мы могли бы взглянуть на данный результат с другой точки зрения. - We may look at this result in another way.
    • Мы могли бы подытожить эти результаты утверждением, что... - We may summarize these results with the statement that...
    • Мы могли бы получить этот же результат более просто, заметив, что... - We could have obtained this result more easily by noting that...
    • Мы могли бы получить этот результат другим способом. - We could obtain this result by a different argument.
    • Мы можем использовать этот результат, чтобы определить (= ввести)... - We can use this result to define...
    • Мы можем подытожить предыдущие результаты в простых терминах, замечая, что... - We can summarize the preceding results in simpler terms by noting that...
    • Мы можем получить данный результат следующим образом. - We can obtain the result as follows.
    • Мы можем применить некоторые результаты этой главы, чтобы проиллюстрировать... - We may apply some of the results of this chapter to illustrate...
    • Мы можем сформулировать этот результат в виде теоремы. - We can state the result as a theorem.
    • Мы не можем ожидать выполнения этого результата в случае... - This result cannot be expected to hold for...
    • Мы применим наши результаты к одному простому случаю. - We shall apply our results to a simple case.
    • Мы только что доказали следующий результат. - We have proved the following result.
    • Мы хотим взглянуть на этот результат с несколько иной точки зрения. - We want to look at this result from a slightly different, point of view.
    • На основе данных результатов давайте теперь оценим... - On the basis of these results, let us now estimate...
    • Наиболее важными результатами являются результаты, касающиеся (= связанные с)... - The most important results are those concerning...
    • Наилучший результат получается, когда/ если... - The best result is obtained when...
    • Наш основной результат будет заключаться в том, что... - Our main result will be that...
    • Наш следующий результат демонстрирует, что... - Our next result demonstrates that...
    • Наши первые результаты описывают соотношения между... - Our first results deal with the relations between...
    • Наши результаты пересекаются с результатами Смита [1], который... - Our results overlap those of Smith [1], who...
    • Наши результаты предпочтительны по сравнению с результатами Смита [1]. - Our results compare favorably with those of Smith [1].
    • Немедленным следствием предыдущего результата является тот факт, что... - An immediate corollary of the above result is the fact that...
    • Несколько более простой результат получается, если мы... - A somewhat simpler result is obtained if we...
    • Несомненно, данные результаты не зависят от... - These results are of course independent of...
    • Нижеследующее является обобщением результата, доказанного Смитом [1]. - The following is a generalization of a result proved by Smith [1].
    • Объединяя эти результаты, мы видим, что... - On combining these results we see that...
    • Обычно это происходит в результате... - This usually occurs as a result of...
    • Однако имеются другие результаты, которые... - There are other results, however, which...
    • Однако окончательные результаты теории не могут зависеть от... - But the final results of the theory must not depend on...
    • Однако подобные усилия приносят положительный результат, только если... - Such efforts, however, are successful only if...
    • Однако у этого результата имеется другое приложение. - However, this result has another application.
    • Однако этот результат действительно предполагает, что... - The result does assume, however, that...
    • Одним интересным свойством этих результатов является то, что они указывают... - One interesting feature of these results is that they indicate...
    • Очевидно, данный результат мог бы быть получен, не используя... - Obviously this result could have been obtained without the use of...
    • Очевидно, что подобный результат справедлив (и) для... - Obviously a similar result is true for...
    • Очевидно, что эти результаты выполняются для любого... - These results clearly hold for any...
    • Очевидной интерпретацией данного результата является... - The straightforward interpretation of this result is...
    • Перед тем как установить только что упомянутые результаты, необходимо (рассмотреть и т. п.)... - Before establishing the results just mentioned it is necessary to...
    • По результатам этого и подобных экспериментов обнаружено, что... - From this and similar experiments it is found that...
    • Подобные результаты убедительно доказывают, что... - Such results conclusively prove that...
    • В некотором роде подобный результат выполняется для... - A somewhat similar result holds for...
    • Полученные результаты должны быть таковы, чтобы их можно было сравнить с... - The results obtained should be capable of comparison with...
    • Помимо прочего, данный результат показывает, что... - Among other things, this result shows that...
    • Помня об этом результате, давайте проверим... - With this result in mind, let us examine...
    • Поучительно рассмотреть эти результаты с точки зрения... - It is instructive to consider these results from the standpoint of...
    • Предыдущие результаты были получены в рамках предположения... - The above results have been obtained under the assumption of...
    • Предыдущие результаты еще раз иллюстрируют... - The above results once more illustrate...
    • Предыдущие результаты можно подытожить следующим образом. - The above results may be summarized as follows.
    • Приведенная выше теория не предсказывает хорошо известный результат, что... - The theory given above does not predict the well-known result that...
    • Простой иллюстрацией для этого результата является его приложение к... - A simple illustration of this result is its application to...
    • Результат может быть найден (с помощью и т. п.)... - The output can be found by...
    • Результат показан ниже. - The result is recorded below.
    • Результат, представленный формулой (9), очень полезен при выводе свойств (чего-л). - The result (9) is very useful for deducing properties of...
    • Результат, справедливость которого может быть проверена (самим) читателем, формулируется следующим образом. - The result, which may be verified by the reader, is...
    • Результатом является представление... - The result is a representation of...
    • Результаты были получены непосредственным наблюдением... - The results are obtained by direct observation of...
    • Результаты были разочаровывающими, в основном потому... - The results have been disappointing, mainly because...
    • Результаты всех этих методов согласуются с... - The results of all these methods are consistent with...
    • Результаты данной главы позволяют нам... - The results of the present chapter enable us to...
    • Результаты согласуются с пониманием, что... - The results are consistent with the view that...
    • Следующий очень важный результат является основой для... - The following very important result is the basis for...
    • Соответствующий результат справедлив (и) для... - A corresponding result holds for...
    • Справедливость того же результата можно увидеть геометрически. - The same result can be seen geometrically.
    • Сравнение с точным результатом (2) показывает, что... - A comparison with the exact result (2) shows that...
    • Считается хорошей практикой выражать все результаты измерений в метрической системе. - It is considered good practice to express all measurements in metric units.
    • Таким образом, данный результат доказан. - The result is therefore established.
    • Таким образом, мы можем обобщить результаты из первого параграфа и сообщить, что... - Thus, we can generalize the results of Section 1 and state that...
    • Таким образом, получен следующий основной (= центральный) результат... - The following key results are therefore obtained:...
    • Такого же самого типа рассуждения доказывают следующий результат. - Arguments of the same type prove the following result.
    • Такой результат более предпочтителен (другому результату). - The outcome is certainly preferable to...
    • Твердо установленным результатом является, что... - It is a well-established result that...
    • Тем не менее эта формальная работа привела к конкретному результату. - Nevertheless, this formal work has produced a concrete result.
    • Теперь мы доказываем два фундаментальных результата. - We now prove two fundamental results.
    • Теперь мы доказываем один фундаментальный результат. - We now prove a fundamental result.
    • Теперь мы можем сформулировать следующий результат. - We are now in a position to state the following result.
    • Теперь мы получаем желаемый результат. - We now have the desired result.
    • Теперь мы собрали воедино основные определения и результаты (исследования и т. п.)... - We have now assembled the main definitions and results of...
    • Тот же самый результат может быть получен простым (вычислением и т. п.)... - The same result may be obtained by simply...
    • Тот же самый результат может быть сформулирован в другой форме. - The same result can be put in a different form.
    • Тот же самый результат можно вывести из... - The same result may be deduced from...
    • Физический смысл этого результата состоит в том, что... - The physical significance of this result is that...
    • Формально этот результат выглядит весьма похожим на... - Formally, the result looks somewhat similar to...
    • Численные результаты, основанные на соотношении (4), показывают, что... - Numerical computations based on (4) show that...
    • Читатель мог бы сравнить этот результат с выражением (6). - The reader may compare this result with the expression (6).
    • Читатель найдет этот результат в любом учебнике... - The reader will find this result in any textbook on...
    • Чтобы объяснить получившийся результат, мы могли бы предположить, что... - То explain the above result, we could suppose that...
    • Чтобы получить необходимый результат, мы... - То obtain the required result, let...
    • Чтобы получить практический результат в подобных случаях, мы... - То obtain a practical result in such cases, we...
    • Эти два результата имеют существенный интерес. - These two results are of considerable interest.
    • Эти два результата совместно показывают, что... - These two results together show that...
    • Эти кажущиеся тривиальными результаты приводят к... - These seemingly trivial results lead to...
    • Эти результаты имели важные далеко ведущие последствия. - The results were of far reaching importance.
    • Эти результаты могут быть легко описаны в терминах... - These results can easily be described in terms of...
    • Эти результаты можно использовать, чтобы установить... - These results can be used to establish...
    • Эти результаты можно очевидным образом обобщить (на случай и т. п.)... - These results can be extended in an obvious way to...
    • Эти результаты не изменятся, если мы... - These results are not affected if we...
    • Эти результаты представлены на рис. 3 и 4. - The results are displayed in Figures 3 and 4.
    • Эти результаты согласуются с предположением, что... - These results are consistent with the assumption that...
    • Эти результаты также поддержали точку зрения, что... - The results also lend support to the view that...
    • Эти результаты теперь могут быть уточнены для случая... - These results can now be specialized to the case of...
    • Эти результаты часто бывают необходимы. - These results are needed frequently.
    • Эти результаты являются следствием... - These results are a consequence of...
    • Эти результаты ясно показывают, что... - These results clearly show that...
    • Эти результаты в основном согласуются с... - These results are broadly consistent with...
    • Это важный результат. Он утверждает, что... - This is an important result. It says that...
    • Это и есть тот самый предсказанный результат. - This is precisely the expected result.
    • Это интересный результат. - This is an interesting result.
    • Это интересный результат, так как... - This is an interesting result because...
    • Это контрастирует с соответствующим результатом для... - This contrasts with the corresponding result for...
    • Это очень важный результат. Он означает, что... - This is a very important result. It means that...
    • Это подтверждается приведенными результатами. - This is confirmed by the results shown.
    • Это результат важен для практики, так как... - The result is important in practical terms since...
    • Это согласуется с нашим предыдущим результатом. - This is in agreement with our previous result.
    • Это хорошо подтверждается результатами... - This is strongly supported by the results of...
    • Это устанавливает данный результат. - This establishes the result.
    •Это чрезвычайно важный результат, поскольку он позволяет нам... - This is an exceedingly important result, as it enables us to...
    • Это ясно показано на рис. 1, который представляет результаты (чего-л). - This is clearly demonstrated in Figure 1 which shows the results of...
    • Этот неверный результат получается вследствие... - This incorrect result is due to...
    • Этот результат более или менее ожидаем, если исходить из того факта, что... - This result is more or less to be expected from the fact that...
    • Этот результат был сформулирован довольно неопределенно (= неточно), потому что... - This result has been stated rather vaguely because...
    • Этот результат было необходимо ожидать, исходя из факта, что... - This result was to be expected from the fact that...
    • Этот результат вытекает из изучения... - This result follows from a study of...
    • Этот результат заслуживает более пристального рассмотрения. - This result is worth a more careful look.
    • Этот результат имеет поразительное сходство с... -. This result bears a striking resemblance to...
    • Этот результат легко установить. - It is easy to establish this result.
    • Этот результат легче запомнить... - This result is more easily remembered by...
    • Этот результат мог бы быть выведен прямо из соотношения (6). - This result could have been deduced directly from (6).
    • Этот результат мог бы нам позволить... - This result may allow us to...
    • Этот результат можно было бы получить более легко, увидев, что... - This result could have been obtained more easily by recognizing that...
    • Этот результат можно использовать без опасений, только если... - It is safe to use this result only if...
    • Этот результат можно сделать более наглядным с помощью... - The result can be made more explicit by...
    • Этот результат не зависит ни от каких предположений относительно... - This result is independent of any assumption about...
    • Этот результат не слишком изменяется, если... - The result is not essentially different if...
    • Этот результат не является простым, потому что... - The result is not simple because...
    • Этот результат перестает быть верным, если... - This result no longer holds if...
    • Этот результат подтверждает интуитивное понимание того, что... - This result confirms the intuitive view that...
    • Этот результат полезен лишь тогда, когда... - This result is useful only when...
    • Этот результат поражает тем, что... - The striking thing about this result is that...
    • Этот результат предлагает естественное обобщение... - This result suggests a natural generalization of...
    • Этот результат совпадает с полученным с помощью уравнения (4). - The result is exactly the same as that given by equation (4).
    • Этот результат согласуется с тем фактом, что... - This result is in agreement with the fact that...
    • Этот результат также можно было бы получить, применяя... - This result may also be obtained by means of...
    • Этот результат является более или менее ожидаемым, однако исходя из того, что... - This result is more or less to be expected, however, from the fact that...

    Русско-английский словарь научного общения > результат

  • 20 Computers

       The brain has been compared to a digital computer because the neuron, like a switch or valve, either does or does not complete a circuit. But at that point the similarity ends. The switch in the digital computer is constant in its effect, and its effect is large in proportion to the total output of the machine. The effect produced by the neuron varies with its recovery from [the] refractory phase and with its metabolic state. The number of neurons involved in any action runs into millions so that the influence of any one is negligible.... Any cell in the system can be dispensed with.... The brain is an analogical machine, not digital. Analysis of the integrative activities will probably have to be in statistical terms. (Lashley, quoted in Beach, Hebb, Morgan & Nissen, 1960, p. 539)
       It is essential to realize that a computer is not a mere "number cruncher," or supercalculating arithmetic machine, although this is how computers are commonly regarded by people having no familiarity with artificial intelligence. Computers do not crunch numbers; they manipulate symbols.... Digital computers originally developed with mathematical problems in mind, are in fact general purpose symbol manipulating machines....
       The terms "computer" and "computation" are themselves unfortunate, in view of their misleading arithmetical connotations. The definition of artificial intelligence previously cited-"the study of intelligence as computation"-does not imply that intelligence is really counting. Intelligence may be defined as the ability creatively to manipulate symbols, or process information, given the requirements of the task in hand. (Boden, 1981, pp. 15, 16-17)
       The task is to get computers to explain things to themselves, to ask questions about their experiences so as to cause those explanations to be forthcoming, and to be creative in coming up with explanations that have not been previously available. (Schank, 1986, p. 19)
       In What Computers Can't Do, written in 1969 (2nd edition, 1972), the main objection to AI was the impossibility of using rules to select only those facts about the real world that were relevant in a given situation. The "Introduction" to the paperback edition of the book, published by Harper & Row in 1979, pointed out further that no one had the slightest idea how to represent the common sense understanding possessed even by a four-year-old. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 102)
       A popular myth says that the invention of the computer diminishes our sense of ourselves, because it shows that rational thought is not special to human beings, but can be carried on by a mere machine. It is a short stop from there to the conclusion that intelligence is mechanical, which many people find to be an affront to all that is most precious and singular about their humanness.
       In fact, the computer, early in its career, was not an instrument of the philistines, but a humanizing influence. It helped to revive an idea that had fallen into disrepute: the idea that the mind is real, that it has an inner structure and a complex organization, and can be understood in scientific terms. For some three decades, until the 1940s, American psychology had lain in the grip of the ice age of behaviorism, which was antimental through and through. During these years, extreme behaviorists banished the study of thought from their agenda. Mind and consciousness, thinking, imagining, planning, solving problems, were dismissed as worthless for anything except speculation. Only the external aspects of behavior, the surface manifestations, were grist for the scientist's mill, because only they could be observed and measured....
       It is one of the surprising gifts of the computer in the history of ideas that it played a part in giving back to psychology what it had lost, which was nothing less than the mind itself. In particular, there was a revival of interest in how the mind represents the world internally to itself, by means of knowledge structures such as ideas, symbols, images, and inner narratives, all of which had been consigned to the realm of mysticism. (Campbell, 1989, p. 10)
       [Our artifacts] only have meaning because we give it to them; their intentionality, like that of smoke signals and writing, is essentially borrowed, hence derivative. To put it bluntly: computers themselves don't mean anything by their tokens (any more than books do)-they only mean what we say they do. Genuine understanding, on the other hand, is intentional "in its own right" and not derivatively from something else. (Haugeland, 1981a, pp. 32-33)
       he debate over the possibility of computer thought will never be won or lost; it will simply cease to be of interest, like the previous debate over man as a clockwork mechanism. (Bolter, 1984, p. 190)
       t takes us a long time to emotionally digest a new idea. The computer is too big a step, and too recently made, for us to quickly recover our balance and gauge its potential. It's an enormous accelerator, perhaps the greatest one since the plow, twelve thousand years ago. As an intelligence amplifier, it speeds up everything-including itself-and it continually improves because its heart is information or, more plainly, ideas. We can no more calculate its consequences than Babbage could have foreseen antibiotics, the Pill, or space stations.
       Further, the effects of those ideas are rapidly compounding, because a computer design is itself just a set of ideas. As we get better at manipulating ideas by building ever better computers, we get better at building even better computers-it's an ever-escalating upward spiral. The early nineteenth century, when the computer's story began, is already so far back that it may as well be the Stone Age. (Rawlins, 1997, p. 19)
       According to weak AI, the principle value of the computer in the study of the mind is that it gives us a very powerful tool. For example, it enables us to formulate and test hypotheses in a more rigorous and precise fashion than before. But according to strong AI the computer is not merely a tool in the study of the mind; rather the appropriately programmed computer really is a mind in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states. And according to strong AI, because the programmed computer has cognitive states, the programs are not mere tools that enable us to test psychological explanations; rather, the programs are themselves the explanations. (Searle, 1981b, p. 353)
       What makes people smarter than machines? They certainly are not quicker or more precise. Yet people are far better at perceiving objects in natural scenes and noting their relations, at understanding language and retrieving contextually appropriate information from memory, at making plans and carrying out contextually appropriate actions, and at a wide range of other natural cognitive tasks. People are also far better at learning to do these things more accurately and fluently through processing experience.
       What is the basis for these differences? One answer, perhaps the classic one we might expect from artificial intelligence, is "software." If we only had the right computer program, the argument goes, we might be able to capture the fluidity and adaptability of human information processing. Certainly this answer is partially correct. There have been great breakthroughs in our understanding of cognition as a result of the development of expressive high-level computer languages and powerful algorithms. However, we do not think that software is the whole story.
       In our view, people are smarter than today's computers because the brain employs a basic computational architecture that is more suited to deal with a central aspect of the natural information processing tasks that people are so good at.... hese tasks generally require the simultaneous consideration of many pieces of information or constraints. Each constraint may be imperfectly specified and ambiguous, yet each can play a potentially decisive role in determining the outcome of processing. (McClelland, Rumelhart & Hinton, 1986, pp. 3-4)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Computers

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